Renaissance (i.e. Renaissance), in the XIV-XVI centuries, when there was, as it were, a new discovery of a great civilization that seemed to be an unattainable model. It was then that the concept of "ancient" (antiquus) began to be applied to history Ancient Greece and Rome. At this time, Renaissance figures sought out and saved from destruction a large number of Latin and Greek manuscripts that preserved the works of ancient writers. They turned out to be masterpieces, works of the highest class,

classy, ​​classy. This word also stuck to the concepts associated with antiquity - classical languages, classical sculpture, classical archeology.

MORPHOLOGY

Lesson 3

Noun. (Nomen substantivum) First declension

The Latin noun has 3 grammatical genders: genus masculinum (m) - masculine;

genus femininum (f) - feminine; genus neutrum(n) - neuter gender;

(genus commune (g.c.) is the common gender of some animal names).

It should be remembered that the gender of a noun in different languages does not always coincide: the Russian word “muscle” is feminine, and the Latin “musculus” is masculine.

The gender of a Latin noun is determined by the end of the nominative singular, or by meaning, for example, femǐna is feminine (woman), but nauta is masculine (sailor).

(Compare: Russian governor a - masculine in meaning).

In terms of meaning, masculine names, in addition to male persons and animals, include the names of winds, months and rivers: Augustus (August), Boreas (Boreas - north wind), Rhodanus (r. Rhone).

Female names, in addition to the names of female persons and animals, include the names of cities, countries, islands, trees. Roma (Rome), betǔla (birch), Creta (Crete), Graecia (Greece).

Latin noun has 2 numbers:

– numĕrus singularis (sing.) - singular;

– numĕrus pluralis (pl.) - plural.

Sometimes the meaning of a Latin word in the plural differs from its meaning in the singular: copia (sing.) - abundance, stock, copiae (pl.) - army, (cf .: hour - hours, dirt - dirt).

Some words are used only in the plural: arma (pl.) - weapon, castra (pl.) - camp, (cf .: scissors, sleigh, darkness).

§ 14. Cases

The Latin noun has six cases (casus):

treatment (Compare father, elder) Veterinary medical terms are used almost

always in the nominative and genitive cases.

§ 15. Declension of nouns

Declension is very important in Latin. The Latin noun has five of them. Since the ending of the nominative case of the singular sometimes coincides with a noun of different declensions, the declension is determined by the ending of the genitive singular.

IN Latin dictionaries list nouns

V two forms: next to the nominative case form

the singular is given the ending of the genitive case of the singular or the full form of the genitive case

(planta, ae; ocǔlus, i; os, ossis).

Table 1 Genitive singular endings

The stem of a Latin noun is the invariable part of the word, which is determined by the genitive case of the singular by discarding the ending:

Table 2 Nominative and genitive endings of all declensions

declination
			Us, -er, -um, -on

§ 16. First declension of nouns and adjectives

TO I declension includes nouns and

feminine adjectives ending in the nominative singular -a, and in the genitive singular -ae, for example aqua, aquae; fractura, fracturae; alba, albae.

Some nouns of the first declension are masculine in meaning: nauta, nautae m - sailor; collega, collegaem - colleague; poēta, poētaem - poet; agricǒla, agricǒlaem -

farmer.

In the term, adjectives, unlike the Russian language, come after the noun. For example: medicinal plant

– planta (n.) medicata (adj.). When declining in cases, such

nouns and adjectives only change the ending, for example:

		lingua latina - Latin language
				Plur.
				linguarum latinarum

Exercises

1) Read and determine the declension of nouns.

Derma, dermatitis; fascia, fasciae; cutis, cutis; carpus, carpi; venter, ventris; rabies, rabiei; genu, genus; sepsis, sepsis; squama, squamae; corpus, corporis; ocǔlus, oculi; cartilago, cartilaginis; cornu, cornus; manus, manus.

2) Identify and write out the stem of the following Latin nouns.

Stoma, stomatis; scapula, scapulae; dorsum, dorsi; frons, frontis; ungula, ungulae; iris, iridis; caput, capitis; inflammation, inflammation; vulnus, vulneris; tetǎnus, tetani; ren, renis; femur, femoris; processus, processus; species, speciei.

3) Try to guess the meaning of the following Latin words and determine their gender.

Majus, Hispania, Troja, olīva, Februarius, Sicilia, Nilus, Finnia, Januaris, Syria, laurus, Eurus, nympha, Danubius, Polonia, Genua, imperator, poēta, rosa, December, Romania, Aprīlis, Hungaria, Styx, Lithuania, Petropǒlis, Creta.

4) Determine the number and case of Latin nouns

I declination.

Vertebrārum, herbas, fracturam, costae, lamǐnis, scapula, ungulārum.

5) Find a phrase with a grammatical error. Vita longa, fasciae latae, fracturis compositis, plantārum

amaris, linguam latinam, orbitas dextras.

6) Write down and translate the nouns of the first declension. Gingiva, a.e.; cranium, i; vacca, ae; res, ei; juba, ae; quercus,

us; glandula, a.e.; ocǔlus, i; ala, ae; spina, ae; cornu,us; scabies, ei;

homo, ĭnis; fibra, ae; mucilago, ĭnis ; sutura, ae; abomasum, i ; incisura, ae.

7) Make phrases from a noun and an adjective, translate the received phrases.

Sample: fascia lata (fascia lata).

8) Decline.

Scapula dextra; fractura composita; costa vera.

9) Pick up Russian sayings corresponding to Latin ones; find in them words related to the 1st declension.

Mala gallina, malum ovum. Bad chicken, bad egg. Aquǐla non captat muscas. The eagle does not catch flies.

Mala herba cito crescit. Bad grass grows fast. Luscinia parva, sed vox magna. Nightingale is small, but

§ 17. Greek doublets

Pay attention to the Greek roots corresponding to the Latin nouns of the 1st declension. (The suffix -itis forms terms with the meaning "inflammation")

			Table 3
Greek doublets of Latin terms
latin	Greek
noun I	understudy roots	Meaning	suffix
declination
		cornea	keratitis keratitis
			adenitis
			glossitis
		breast	mastitis mastitis
		spinal cord	myelitis myelitis
			blepharitis
			phlebitis phlebitis
			cystitis cystitis
		(uric)

Terminological minimum

Nouns of the 1st declension

ala, ae f wing				cardia, ae f	heart, entry
	ae f inlet, hole			esophagus to stomach
aqua, ae f				fiber, ae f fiber
sarra, ae f				fissura, ae f	crack, crack
fovea, ae f				planta, ae f	plant
fractura, ae f				plica, ae f fold
gingiva, ae f				ruptura, ae f gap
glándula, ae f gland				spina, ae f spine, ridge
glossa, ae f		(Greek) language		squama, ae f scales
herba, ae f				sutura, ae f
incisura, ae f				ungula, ae f
juba, ae f				vagina, ae f	vagina
lamina, ae f			plate	vacca, ae f cow
medulla, ae f			bone marrow,	vesica, ae f
dorsal, oblong				vita, ae f life
orbita, ae f		eye socket

Adjectives of the 1st declension

alba - whitecompósita - complexmagna - largeparva - smallplana - flatprofunda - deep

próxima - nearest

flava (lútea) - yellow longa - long

pura - pure rubra - red spúria - false vera - true

Questions for self-control

1. What grammatical categories does a Latin noun have?

2. How to determine the declension of a noun?

3. How to find the stem of a latin noun?

4. What nouns belong to the I declension?

5. What exceptions in the I declension can you name?

§18. Country Studies

Read the following text and answer the questions:

1. What parts did the name of a Roman citizen consist of?

2. What were the names of Roman women? What were the names of the daughters of Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Tullius Cicero, Mark Antony?

3. What was the freedman's name?

4. How can you explain the meaning of Latin names: Gennady, Victor, Konstantin, Valery, Nona?

5. Memorize the following Latin expressions:

Nomen est omen. The name is already a sign.

Magni nominis umbra. The shadow of a great name.

Venerable nomen. honorable name.

Nomina obscura. Dark names.

Roman names

The Romans usually had three names, as we have - the first name, patronymic and surname.

The first name - praenomen - was personal, like Peter or Mary. There were few such names, there are no more than 30 of them. In writing, they were abbreviated with one, two or three letters. Such abbreviations were very common, and therefore it is necessary

be able to open them; here are the most used ones:

The second name - nomen (nomen) - was the name of the genus and corresponded, approximately, to our surname.

The third name - cognomen (cognomen) - was a nickname that was assigned to everyone according to some signs: red-haired - Ruf, dodger - Cato, nosy - Nason.

A family or a separate branch of a given genus was distinguished by a cognomen. For example, the families of Scipio, Rufinus, Lentulus and some others belonged to the Cornelius family.

Sometimes, for some special merit, the Roman received a fourth name or a second nickname - agnomen (agnomen). Publius Cornelius Scipio, in honor of the victory he won over Hannibal in Africa in 202 BC, became known as

solemnly African (Africanus, cf.: nicknames of Russian commanders - Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Suvorov Rymniksky, Potemkin Tauride).

Women were called by the generic name of the father in the feminine form. The daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio was called Cornelia, the daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo was called Domitia. When another daughter appeared in the family, a prenomen was added to the name of both: Elder (Major) and Younger (Minor), other sisters were called Third (Tertia), Fifth (Quintilla), etc. Married woman retained her name, but her husband's cognomen was added to it: Cornelia, daughter of Cornelius, (wife) Gracchus (Cornelia, filia Cornelii, Gracchi).

Slaves were named according to their origin: Sir (born in Syria), Gallus (born in Gaul), Frix (from Phrygia); by the names of mythical heroes: Achilles, Hector; by the names of plants or stones: Adamant, Sardonic, etc. Sometimes slaves, often called "boy" (puer), were assigned the name of the owner in the genitive case: Marzipor (from Marcipuer), that is, Mark's slave.

Freedmen (that is, slaves who received freedom) acquired the generic and personal name of the former master, their own name was placed in third place as a cognomen. So, the secretary of Cicero Tyrone, freed from slavery, was called: Marcus Tullius the scapegoat of Mark Tyrone: Marcus Tullius Marci libertus Tiro.

Lesson 4 Second declension of nouns and adjectives

§ 19. Second declension of nouns

The second declension includes masculine nouns in -us, -er in Nom. sing., and neuter in -um. In Gen. sing.

they all end in -i (nervus, nervim; aper, aprim; unguentum, unguentim).

In addition, masculine and neuter adjectives with the same endings belong to the II declension:

The second declension also includes incompletely Latinized terms of Greek origin with the ending -os (ophthalmós, im - eye); and with the ending -on

(organon, i n - organ).

Exceptions to the rule are the words of the II declension, related to the feminine:

alvus, i - stomach;

bolus, i - clay, large pill; popǔlus, i – poplar;

junipĕrus, i – juniper; periŏdus, i – period;

humus, i - soil and some others,

as well as one word of the middle gender: virus, i - poison.

						Table 4
	Endings of the II declension of nouns

Table 5

Noun declension pattern

musculus, i m - muscle, aper, im - wild boar, remedium, in - medicine

The noun of the II declension has the ending Dat. and Abl. match in singular and plural.

§20. Second declension of adjectives

Adjectives of the II declension are in full agreement with the corresponding noun in declension

There are six cases in Latin:

Nominativus nominative who? What?

Genetivus parent of whom? what?

Dativus dative to whom? what?

Accusativus accusatory whom? What?

Ablativus postponement by whom? how? about whom? about what?

Vocativus vocative

For a correct understanding of most anatomical terms (and the terms of other sections of medical terminology), it is enough to know only the forms of the first two cases of the singular and plural, to which we will restrict ourselves later:

Nominative case - the case of a name, title, is considered the initial form of nouns and adjectives. In anatomical and histological terms, nouns in the nominative case are written in the first place.

The system of changing words by numbers and cases is called declension. In Latin, there are five types of word changes according to numbers and cases, or five declensions.

The declension of Latin nouns is usually determined by the end of the genitive case of the singular - Gen. sing., since only in this case does each declension have a characteristic ending. In other cases, depending on the gender and nature of the basis of nouns, the endings may coincide or have several options ( see summary table of case endings).

Noun Declension Table

The end of Gen.sing.
declination

Ending Gen. sing. (genitive singular) is always written next to nouns in the dictionary.

Dictionary form of nouns

The dictionary form of nouns is the following entry: costa, ae f edge; musclelus, i m muscle; sternum, i n sternum; margo, ĭnis m edge; arcus,us m arc; facies, ei f face, surface; where the whole word written at the beginning is the form of the nominative case of the singular, through the occupied - the ending of the genitive case of the singular, and the letter denotes the gender of this noun. For some nouns (usually the 3rd declension), in the genitive case, not only the case ending is recorded, but also part of the stem, to indicate cases when alternations of vowels or consonants are observed in the stem of the word. For example: corpus, ŏris n body; forāmen, ĭnis n hole; apex, ĭcis m tip. If a word in the nominative case has only one syllable, the genitive form is written in full: os, ossis n bone; os, oris n mouth; dens, dentis m tooth; pars, partis f Part. Therefore, when memorizing Latin nouns, it is necessary to memorize not only the initial form, but also the form of the genitive case, and what kind of word is given: costa, costae, feminī num; forāmen, foraminis, neutrum; margo, marginis, maskī num.

Nom . sing .	Ending Gen . sing	nouns
			edge
			muscle
			sternum
			edge
			arc
			face, surface
			bone
			Part

When memorizing Latin nouns, it is imperative to remember all the elements of the dictionary form. Thus, the forms of the first two cases, which are most common in anatomical terms, we will know only on the basis of knowledge of the dictionary form of the noun.

Greek nouns in anatomical nomenclature

In anatomical terminology, Greek nouns that have passed into Latin can be found, which are divided into three declensions. Division is based on the same principle as that of Latin nouns: the ending of the genitive case of the singular. When declining Greek words for the most part they take Latin endings, but in some cases they retain the old Greek endings: Aloё, es f aloe (medicinal plant)) ; raphe, es f the seam; diabetes, ae m diabetes; ascites, ae m dropsy of the abdominal cavity. Such words will be considered within the framework of Latin declensions.

To consolidate new material:

Determine declination nouns : vertĕbra, ae f; corpus, ŏris n; dorsum, i n; arcus, usm; superficies, ēi f; basis, is f; collum, in; apex, ĭcis m; cranium, ii n; ductus, usm; caput, itis n; ganglion, ii n; cornu, us n; squama, ae f; facies, ēi f; zygōma, ătis n; processus, usm; tubercŭlum, i n; thorax, ācism; tractus, us m; atlas, antism; axis, ism; dorsum, i n; genu, us n.

§9. Structure of anatomical terms.

Inconsistent definition

1) Anatomical terms can consist of one word. We will call them single-word - vertěbra vertebra; costa edge; cerebrum brain etc . You need to know that some one-word Latin names are translated into Russian not by one Russian word, but by two. For example: thorax (in Greek shell) - rib cage; fibula (in Latin a clothespin that looks like a bone) - fibula; tibia (in Latin pipe, which in ancient times was made from such bones) - tibia, etc.

2) Two-word terms consist of two words: corpus vertěbrae body of (what?) vertebra; vertebra cervicalis vertebra (what?) cervical etc. In two-word terms, the first word is always a noun in the nominative case - Nom. sing. The second word defines, characterizes the first, it is called definition. A definition expressed by a noun in the genitive case is called an inconsistent definition.

3) Multi-word terms consist of several nouns and adjectives: facies articularis tubercŭli costae articular surface of the tubercle of the rib. In the Latin term, the noun in the nominative case comes first, although in Russian we call the adjective first.

§10. Sequence of actions when translating into Latin

terms with an unspoken definition

Any anatomical term in Latin begins with a noun in the nominative case, singular or plural. The following are words that explain this noun. These can be adjectives (agreeing definition) or nouns in the genitive case (inconsistent definition).

The simplest construction is "noun nominative + noun genitive". Let's denote them C 1 and C 2 . Both in Russian and in Latin, the words are arranged in the same sequence "C 1 + C 2".

Consider, for example, the translation of the term rib arc .

First of all, you need to remember the dictionary form of each word included in the term:

arc - arcus, us m;

rib - costa, ae f

Then you need to determine in which case each word in Russian is used in this term, and write out the Latin word in the same case:

Let's connect the Latin forms according to the scheme " C 1 + C 2"And we will end up with a Latin term arcus costae .

An anatomical term can include several words in the genitive case: surface of the tubercle of the rib . The scheme of this term is "C 1 + C 2 + C 2".

Dictionary form of all words:

surface - facies, ēi f;

tubercle - tubercŭlum, i n;

rib - costa, ae f.

	in Russian	grammatical characteristic	in latin
	surface	eminent. case singular numbers - Nom. sing.
		genitive singular. numbers - Gen.sing.

Latin translation: facies tuberculi costae.

Lexical minimum

ala, ae f wing

arcus,us m arc

arteria, ae f artery

atlas, atlantis m first cervical vertebra, atlas

axis, ism second cervical vertebra, axis

caput, itis n head, head

collum, i n neck, neck

corpus, ŏris n body

costa, ae f edge

crista, ae f crest

facies, ēi f face, surface

forāmen, ĭnis n hole

fossa, ae f hole, recess

fovea, ae f pit, hole

incisura, ae f tenderloin

lamina, ae f platea

os, ossis n bone

processus, us m offshoot

scapŭla, ae f scapula

sulcus, i m furrow

thorax, acis m rib cage

tubercŭlum, i n tubercle

vena, ae f vein

vertebra, ae f vertebra

Exercises

Determine the declension of nouns:

fovea, ae f; dorsum, i n; arcus, usm; collum, in; cranium, in; ductus, usm; cornu, us n; facies, ēi f; zygōma, ătis n; musculus, im; processus, usm; atlas, antism; axis, ism; genu, us n; tuberosĭtas, ātis f; ala, ae f; plexus, usm; ramus, im; tubercŭlum, i n; incisura, ae f; forāmen, ĭnis n; sulcus, im; fossa, ae f; crista, ae f; dens, dentis m; apex, ĭcis m; os, ossis n; cavitas, ātis f; angŭlus, im; costa, ae f.

Rewrite, insert instead of the missing letters the ending of the genitive case of the singular. Underline the nouns that change the stem:

tubercŭlum, tubercŭl… (II declension); nervus, nerv… (II); caput, capit… (III); arcus, arc… (IV); atlas, atlant… (III); forāmen, foramĭn… (III); costa, cost… (I); crista, crist… (I); collum, coll… (II); arteria, arteri… (I); os, oss… (III); vertebra, vertebr... (I); hiātus, hiāt… (IV); os, or… (III); basis, bas… (III); facies, faci… (V); margo, margĭn… (III); tympănum, tympăn… (II); apex, apĭc… (III); processus, process… (IV); canalis, canal… (III); meātus, meāt… (IV); corpus, corpŏr… (III); pars, part… (III).

Translate the following phrases into Russian:

arcus vertebrae; caput costae; collum scapulae; collum mandibulae; collum costae; corpus costae; foramen vertebrae; tuberculum costae; sulcus venae; incisura scapulae; facies tuberculi costae.

Translate the following phrases into Latin:

vertebral arch; plate of the vertebral arch; arc of the first cervical vertebra; rib body; rib head; rib head crest; rib wing; rib neck; tubercle crest; rib tubercle; sulcus of the artery; rib neck crest; wing of a rooster's comb (rooster - gallus, i m).

5. Read the Latin proverbs and idioms, put the stress, remember by heart.

1. Non ad vanam captandam gloriam, non sordĭdi lucri causa, sed quo magis vertas propagētur. Not to achieve empty glory, not for vile self-interest, but so that the truth spreads more (from the Hippocratic oath). 2.Non enim tam praeclārum est scīre Latīne, quam turpe nescīre. It is not so commendable to know Latin, how shameful it is not to know it.. 3. Non scholae, sed vitae discĭmus. Not for school, but for life, we learn. 4. Scientia est potentia. Knowledge is power.

Exercises for verification and test reading

Ostemporā le. Processus zygomatĭcus; tubercŭlum articulare; fissūra petrosquamōsa; fissūra petrotympanĭca; pars tympanĭca; porus acusticus externus; fissura tympanomastoidea; spina suprameatca; sulcus nervi petrōsi minris; sulcus nervi petrōsi majōris; hiatus canalis nervi petrōsi; eminentia arcuata; sulcus sinus sigmoidei; impressio nervi trigemni; apex partis pertōsae; margo sphenoidalis; tegmen tympani; apertūra externa aquaeductus vestibŭli; apertūra externa canalicŭli cochleae; meātus acustĭcus externus; fissūra tympanosquamōsa; tubercŭlum articulare; fossŭla petrōsa; forāmen stylomastoideum; cavum tympani; promontory; fenestra vestibuli; fenestra cochleae; vagīna processus styloīdei; canalis carotcus; prominentia canalis semicircularis lateralis; genicŭlum canalis facialis; semicanalis musculi tensoris tympani; semicanalis tubae auditvae; cellŭlae tympanĭcae; canaliclus chordae tympani.

Osethmoidā le. Lamina perpendicularis; concha nasālis media; crista galli; labyrinthus ethmoidalis; lamĭna cribrōsa; ala cristae galli; forāmen caecum; concha nasālis superior; meatus nasi superior; processus uncinatus; bulla ethmoidalis.

Maxilla. Corpus maxillae; margo infraorbitalis; facies anterior; juga alveolaria; fossa canina; incisūra nasālis; spina nasalis anterior; sulcus infraorbitalis; facies infratemporalis; tuber maxillae; canalis incisivus; forāmen incisīvum; foramina alveolaria; canales alveolares; hiatus maxillaris; alveli dentales; os incisivum; sutūra palatīna mediana; septa interradicularia; processus sphenoidalis; processus pyramidalis; lamina horizontalis; incisura sphenopalatina; fossa pterygoidea; ala vomeris; fossa sacci lacrimalis; hiatus lacrimalis; processus temporalis; forāmen zygomaticotemporāle.

Mandibŭ la. Basis mandibulae; processus coronoideus; processus condylaris; tuberositas masseterca; sulcus mylohyoideus; septa interalveolaria; linea obliqua; protuberantia mentalalis; lingŭla mandibŭlae; fossa digastrica; fovea sublingualis; os hyoideum; cornu majus; cornua majōra; cornu minus; cornua minra.

Cranium. Calvaria; basis; crista frontalis; foveŏlae granulares; sella turcĭca; forāmen jugulare; canalis hypoglossus; synchondrosis sphenooccipitalis; vomer; lamĭna horizontalis ossis palatīni; orbitta; processus pyramidalis ossis palatini; palatum durum; choana; cóndylus occipitalis; tubercŭlum pharyngēum; canalis condylaris; forāmen lacerum; fissūra tympanosquamōsa; sutura sphenosquamsa; forāmen palatīnum minus; clivus; eminentia cruciformis; orbitta; adĭtus orbitae; canalis nasolacrimalis; fossa sacci lacrimalis; os sphenoidale; forāmen ethmoidāle posterius; meātus nasi communis; apertūra piriformis; recessus sphenoethmoidalis; infundibŭlum ethmoidale; hiatus semilunaris; lamĭna laterālis processus pterygoidei; processus palatinus maxillae; os lacrimalis; fonticulus anterior; anŭlus tympanĭcus; squama occipitalis.

§eleven. Adjective

The Latin adjective has the same grammatical categories as the noun - gender, number, case. But the adjective declines only in the first three declensions.

The dictionary form of adjectives represents the following entry: the nominative case of the masculine singular is given in full, then the feminine and neuter endings are indicated separated by a comma. For example: longus, a, um long, -th, -th; liber, ĕra, ĕrum free,-oh, -oh; dexter, tra, trum right,-oh, -oh; articularis, e articular, -th, -th; costalis, e costal, th, th. Depending on generic endings in Nom.sing. adjectives in Latin are divided into two groups.

TO first group include adjectives that in Nom. sing. in the masculine gender have an ending - us, or - er, in the feminine - A, average -- um: profundus, a, um deep, th, th; sinister, tra, trum left, -th, -th.

The rest of the adjectives refer to second group. In most cases, Nom. sing. they have general form for masculine and feminine with the ending - is, and ending - e neuter: laterālis, e lateral, -th, -th; dorsalis, e rear, -th, -th,dorsal, -th, -th; costalis, e costal,-oh, -oh (see §20 for details). Mixing of generic endings of the first and second groups is excluded. If you come across an adjective with an ending - us, then this is a masculine form, and the corresponding feminine and neuter forms of this adjective will have endings - a, -um; and if the masculine form has an ending - is, then f.r. -- is; cf. - - e.

The second group of adjectives is joined by several words that are actively involved in anatomical term formation. These are forms comparative degree Latin adjectives: anterior, ius front, -ya, -her; posterior, ius rear, -ya, -her; superior, ius upperAndth-ya, -her; inferior, ius lower, -ya, -ee; major, jus big, -th, -th; minor, us small, th, th. They have in Nom. sing. a common masculine and feminine form ending in -ior(jor), the neuter gender ending in -ius(jus).

The declension of adjectives is determined according to the dictionary form as follows: adjectives of the first group of feminine gender with the ending - A belong to the I declension; masculine adjectives in - us, -er and neuter on- um belong to the II declension; adjectives of the second group and the comparative degree of adjectives - to the III declension.

	1st group			2nd group			comparative
declination

Adjectives agree with the nouns they define in gender, number, and case. In a phrase, the noun is put first, then the adjective: vertĕbra thoracĭca (thoracic vertebrae) Russian: thoracic vertebra. The adjective must be of the same gender as the noun, stand in the same number and case as the noun, but their declension may be different.

As an example, let's make phrases with a noun processus, usm and adjectives from the following table. The noun is masculine, therefore, as a definition for it, we choose adjectives with masculine endings from the dictionary form:

m (masculine)	f (feminine)	n (neuter)
Us externus Us transverse Er dexter	A externa A transversa Tra dextra	um externum um transverse Trump dextrum
Is lateralis Is dorsalis		E laterale E dorsale
Ior anterior Ior posterior Ior superior Ior inferior Jor major Or minor		Ius anterius Ius posterius Ius superius Ius inferius Jus majus Us minus

Processus externus (transversus); processus dexter; processus lateralis (dorsalis); processus anterior (posterior; superior; inferior); processus major; processus minor.

Next noun arteria, aef feminine and for it we choose adjectives with feminine endings:

Arteria externa (transversa); arteria dextra; arteria lateralis (dorsalis); arteria anteriorDocument

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GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES OF THE NAME
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns have grammatical categories in Latin kind(genus) numbers(numerus) and case(case).
In Latin there is:

1. Three genera.
masculinum (m) -- masculine
femininum (f) -- feminine
neutrum (n) -- neuter gender

2. two numbers.
singularis-- singular
pluralis-- plural

3. The Latin declension system is formed by six cases.
nominativus-- nominative
genitivus-- genitive
dativus-- dative
accusativus-- accusative
ablativus-- ablative (deferential)
vocativus-- vocative

The Latin ablative united the meanings of three once independent Indo-European cases: instrumental or instrumental instrumentalis denoting a tool or means of action; local locativus, indicating the place of action; suspensive, withdrawn ablativus, denoting an object or person from which something is removed, is separated. ablatīvus got its name from this last function. Latin ablatīvus corresponds to the Russian instrumental, but retains the meaning of place and distance.

FIVE DECLINES OF NOUNS
Depending on the end of the historical basis, Latin nouns are divided into five declensions(declination):
I declension - basis on -a
II declension - basis on -ŏ/-ĕ
III declension - the basis for a consonant sound or -ī
IV declension - basis on -ŭ
V declension -- based on -ē

Since the historical basis is often difficult to distinguish due to the merging of its vowel sound with the ending, the belonging of a word to one or another declension is practically determined by the ending of the gender. case units numbers ( genetivus singularis)
Endings gen. sing. I - V declensions

In dictionaries, next to the nominative case, the ending or the full form of the genitive case (gen. sing.) is always given:

terra, ae f land, country
lupus, i m wolf
avis, ĭs f bird
casŭs, ūs m case; case
res, rĕi f thing; case

N.B. When memorizing nouns, be sure to memorize them in two forms -- nominative and genitive cases, for example: terra, terrae, feminine land, country

If from the form gen. sing. discard the ending, then we get the basis, which we will call practical. So, for example, in the noun I declension terra(gen. sing. terrae) practical basis terr-, the historical terra-. In what follows, we will simply refer to the historical basis as "the basis".

I DECLINE

NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
The I declension includes nouns with a base on -a. In nom. sing. all nouns of the first declension end in -ă , For example: aqua water, terra Earth.
A practical sign of the I declension is the ending gen. sing. -ae: nom. sing. aqu a, gen. sing. aqu ae.
Most nouns of the 1st declension -- female. (Compare in Russian the declension of nouns like water, Earth, grass; they are all feminine). But words denoting males, including proper names, are masculine: agricŏla, ae m farmer, nauta, ae m sailor, incŏla, ae m inhabitant, Catilina, ae m Catiline. (Compare in Russian words grandfather, governor, headman, Thomas. As in Latin, in this case the grammatical gender obeys the natural).

aqua, ae f water

case Singularis Pluralis N. aqu ă aqu ae G. aqu ae aqu arum D. aqu ae aqu is acc. aqu am aqu as Abl. aqu ā aqu is v. aqu ă aqu ae

1.Nom. and voc. units and many others. the number of names of the first declension coincide.
2. Abl. sing. ends in a long stem vowel -ā
3.Dat. and abl. pl. match up. This coincidence is a feature of all declensions.

Just like nouns with a base on -a, feminine adjectives are declined, for example: magnă big -- terra magna big land :

case Singularis Pluralis N., V. terr ă magnification ă terr ae magnification ae G. terr ae magnification ae terr arum magnification arum D. terr ae magnification ae terr is magnification is acc. terr am magnification am terr as magnification as Abl. terr ā magnification ā terr is magnification is

Similarly, feminine possessive pronouns are inflected: mea my, tua yours, nostra our, vestra your and feminine reflexive possessive pronoun sua its*:

nom. sing. nostra terra magna our great country
gen. sing. nostrae terrae magnae our great country, etc.

* The reflexive possessive pronoun in Latin (as in French, German, English, Italian and other languages, but unlike Russian) is used only in relation to the subject of the 3rd person. In Russian, the pronoun "own" is used regardless of the person of the subject. Latin possessive pronouns change their form according to with person and number of the verb:
epistlam meam mitto -- I send his letter
epistlam tuam mittis -- you send his letter
epistlam sumam mittit - he (she) sends his letter
epistlam nostra mittĭmus - we send his letter
epistlam vestram mittĭtis -- you send his letter
epistlam sumam mittunt -- she send his letter

WORD FORMATION OF NOUNS I declension
Nouns of the I declension are formed from both verbal and nominal stems.

1. Nominal stems.
From the stem of adjectives with the help of suffixes -ia, -itia properties, qualities or states:

avarus, a, um stingy; avar-itia, ae f stinginess
justus, a, um fair; just-itia, ae f justice
miser, ĕra, ĕrum unhappy; miser-ia, ae f poverty; misfortune

2. Verb stems.
a) From stem infect with suffixes -(e)ntia, -(a)ntia nouns are formed with the meaning quality or states:

scire know; sci-entia, ae f knowledge
ignore dont know; ingor-antia, ae f ignorance, ignorance

b) From the base of the supine with the help of suffixes -(t)ura, -(s)ura nouns are formed with the meaning action result:

colo, colui, cultum 3 process; cul-tura, ae f processing
pingo, pinxi, pictum 3 paint; pic-tūra, ae f picture

All these types of word formation in the I declension are productive.

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions by origin are adverbs that lexically clarify the main meaning of the case form. So, for example, the main meaning of the ablative - removal, distance - can be lexically specified by prepositions ex, ab: exhorto from the garden, abhorto from the garden and etc.
As adverbs, prepositions originally did not have a fixed place in the sentence. Some traces of this have been preserved in Latin, for example, the use of a preposition between the definition and the word being defined: magna cum virtual with great honor,qua de cause for what reason why and etc.
Some words in classical Latin are used both as adverbs and as prepositions, for example, ante, post, contra and others: ante volat flies ahead, Where ante-- adverb, ante lucem before dawn, Where ante- suggestion, use from wine case.
Prepositions are a developing part of speech, constantly replenished at the expense of other parts of speech, for example, nouns frozen in any case; for example in abl.: cause -- because of, gratia -- thanks, for. The prepositions causa, gratia are used with the genitive and postpositive: belli causa because of war.
In Latin, prepositions are combined with either the accusative or the ablative. And only two suggestions in And sub) are combined with both cases.
1. The most common prepositions with accusative:

ad to, at
ante before, before
apud at, near
contra against, in spite of
ob because of
per through
post after
praeter except
propter because of, because of, on account of
trans through

2. The most common prepositions with ablative:

a(ab) from
cum With ( compatibility)
de s, co ( department); oh, about; according to, by
e(ex) from
prae in front, before; because of
pro for, in defense; instead of
sine without

3. Prepositions with two cases:

in in, on - "where?" + acc.; "Where?" +abl.
sub under -- "where?" + acc.; "Where?" +abl.

Notes:
1. Prepositions a And e before words beginning with a vowel take forum ab And ex.
2. Remember prepositions with ablative and two cases ( in, sub). Most prepositions in Latin are combined with the accusative case. You will come across these prepositions in later lessons.

PRAESENS INDICATIVI VERBS ESSE

Verb essay be forms the main verb forms from different stems like Russian is-was; German sein, war, gewesen; English to be, was and other Indo-European languages. This phenomenon is called suppletivism (from the Latin word suppletīvus additional). In addition, when conjugating the verb essay in praesens ind. there is an alternation of bases s/es. (cf. Russian 3rd person singular numbers - "is", 3rd person plural. numbers - "essence"; German 3rd person singular numbers - ist, 3rd person pl. sind numbers, etc.)

Face Singularis Pluralis 1. sum* I am sumus we are 2. es you are estis you are 3. est she is sunt they are (meaning)

* In verb conjugation essay before nasal sounds m And n preserved thematic vowel ŭ .

In Russian, the verb be lost its conjugation in the present tense, i.e. does not differ in person or number. IN Old Russian verb be hid:

Unit number: 1. am; 2. thou art; 3. There is;
Mn. number: 1. esm; 2. nature; 3. essence (essence).

DATĪVUS COMMŎDI (INCOMMŎDI)

The dative case can denote a person or thing in whose interests (or to whose detriment) an action is performed. This dative case is called datīvus commŏdi (incommŏdi)(dative interest) and is translated into Russian in the genitive case with prepositions for the sake of:

Non scholae, sed vitae discĭmus. - We study not for school, but for life.

ABLATVUS MODI

An ablative can express an image or way of an action. In this function, the ablative name is usually used with a definition without a preposition or with a preposition cum, which is often placed between the definition and the word being defined. Such an ablative is called ablativus modi(ablative mode of action):

SYNTAX OF A SIMPLE COMMON SENTENCE

1. The order of words in the Latin language of the classical period is relatively fixed:

a) the subject is usually put in the first place;
b) the predicate is usually placed last. If the predicate comes first in the sentence, then from the point of view of the Latin language this is an inversion, and, therefore, a special logical stress lies on the predicate;
c) direct object is expressed only vin. case without a preposition and is most often placed before the predicate or closer to the predicate;
d) the agreed definition is placed mainly after the word being defined.

2. Verb essay in the meaning of the link, it is usually not omitted, with the exception of proverbs, sayings, maxims, where it can be omitted.
3. Nominal part compound predicate is put in the nominative case, agreeing with the subject of the sentence.
4. Negation with verbs does not change the verb control and does not change the construction of the sentence.
5. In a Latin negative sentence, there can be only one negation (including negative words - pronouns, adverbs). If there are two negatives in a sentence, then the whole statement acquires an emphatically positive meaning.

LEXICAL MINIMUM

agricŏla, ae m farmer
agricultūra, ae f agriculture
amicitia, a.e. f friendship
amo 1 be in love
bestia, ae f animal, beast
cito fast, soon
colo, colui, cultum 3 handle, take care of; read
cura, ae f care, effort
epistŏla, ae f letter
fortuna, ae f fate, fate; happiness
incŏla, ae m inhabitant
nature, ae f nature
patria, ae f fatherland, motherland
Quia because, because
scientia, ae f knowledge; the science
silva, ae f forest
studeo, studui, -- 2 (+dat.) strive, try; (hard) work out
sum, fui, --, esse be
tabŭla, ae f board; painting
terra, ae f Earth; a country
victoria ae f victory
vita, ae f life

Morphology- This is a section of grammar that studies the patterns of existence, formation (structure) and understanding of word forms (word forms) of various parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc.).

The word has lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meaning- this is the content of the word, generalizing in our minds the idea of ​​​​an object, phenomenon, property, process (rib, ontogenesis, straight, serous, bending, etc.).

The grammatical meaning is determined both by the categorical belonging of a given word to the corresponding part of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in a noun, the meaning of a feature in an adjective), and the private meaning due to a change in the forms of this word (rib, ribs; direct, direct, direct, etc.).

The word exists as a system of forms. The system of changing the forms of words is called inflection.

The grammatical categories according to which the forms of a noun change in Latin, as in Russian, are cases and numbers (vertebra - vertebra, corpus vertebrae - vertebral body; foramen - hole, foramina - holes; os - bone, ossa - bones, sternum - sternum, manubrium sterni - handle of the sternum).

Noun

The inflection of nouns according to cases and numbers is called declension.

Cases

There are 6 cases in Latin.

Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?).

Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (of whom, what?).

Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, what?).

Accusativus (Acc.) - accusative (whom, what?).

Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, creative (by whom, with what?).

Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.

For nomination, i.e. for naming (naming) objects, phenomena, and the like in medical terminology, only two cases are used - nominative (n. p.) and genitive (gen. p.).

The nominative case is called the direct case, which means the absence of relations between words. The meaning of this case is the actual naming. The genitive case has a characterizing meaning.

1. Types of declensions

There are 5 types of declensions in Latin, each of which has its own paradigm (a set of word forms).

A practical means of distinguishing declension (determining the type of declension) in Latin is the genitive case of the singular. Genus forms. p. units hours in all declensions are different.

A sign of the type of declension of a noun is the ending gender. p. units h., therefore, in dictionaries, the form genus. p. units h. is indicated along with the form of them. p. units hours and they must be memorized only together.

The distribution of nouns by declension types depending on the gender ending. p. units h.Genitive endings of all declensions

2. The concept of the dictionary form of a noun

Nouns are listed in the dictionary and learned in dictionary form, which contains three components:

1) the form of the word in them. p. units hours;

2) the end of the genus. p. units hours;

3) gender designation - male, female or neuter (abbreviated as one letter: m, f, n).

For example: lamina, ae (f), sutura, ae (f), sulcus, i (m); ligamentum, i(n); pars, is(f), margo, is(m); os, is(n); articulatio, is (f), canalis, is (m); ductus, us(m); arcus, us (m), cornu, us, (n); facies, ei (f).

3. Determining the practical basis

Some nouns have the III declension before the ending genus. p. units h. -is is also attributed to the final part of the stem. This is necessary if the stem of the word is in gender. p. units h. does not coincide with the basis of them. p. units hours:

The full form of the genus. p. units hours for such nouns are found as follows: corpus, =oris (=corpor - is); foramen, -inis (= foramin - is).

For such nouns, the practical basis is determined only from the form of the word to the gender. p. units hours by discarding its ending. If the basics in them. p. units hours and in the genus. p. units h. coincide, then only the ending genus is indicated in the dictionary form. etc., and the practical basis in such cases can be determined from them. p. units hours without ending.

Consider examples.

The practical basis is the basis, to which, during inflection (declension), the endings of oblique cases are added; it may not coincide with the so-called historical basis.

For monosyllabic nouns with a changing stem, the entire word form genus is indicated in the dictionary form. n., for example pars, partis; crus, cruris; os, oris; cor, cordis.

4. Definition of the gender of nouns

In Latin, as in Russian, nouns belong to three genders: masculine (masculinum - m), feminine (femininum - f) and neuter (neutrum - n).

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns cannot be determined from the gender of Russian words equivalent in meaning, since often the gender of nouns with the same meaning in Russian and Latin does not coincide.

It is possible to determine the belonging of a Latin noun to a particular gender only by the endings characteristic of this gender in it. p. units h. For example, words in -a are feminine (costa, vertebra, lamina, incisura, etc.), words in -um are neuter (ligamentum, manubrium, sternum, etc.).

A sign of the declension of a noun is the ending of the gender. p. units hours; a sign of the genus is a characteristic ending in it. p. units h.

5. Determining the gender of nouns ending in the nominative singular in -a, -um, -on, -en, -i, -us

You can get acquainted with all the characteristic features of the gender of Latin nouns in a number of lessons on the III declension. In this section, we will focus only on the signs of the grammatical gender of some groups of words that have in them. p. units h. characteristic endings: -a, -um, -on, -en, -u, -us.

There can be no doubt that nouns in -a are feminine, and nouns in -um, -on, -en, -u are neuter.

As for nouns ending in -us, the answer cannot be unambiguous without involving additional data and, above all, information about the declension of the word.

All nouns in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are necessarily masculine, for example:

lobus, i; nodus, i; sulcus, i;

ductus, us; arcus, us; meatus, us, m - masculine.

If a noun with -us belongs to the III declension, then its belonging to a certain gender should be specified with the help of such an additional indicator as the final consonant of the stem in gender. P.; if the final consonant of the stem is -r, then the noun is neuter, and if the final consonant is different (-t or -d), then it is feminine.

For example:

tempus, or-is; crus, crur-is;

corpus, or-is - neuter, juventus, ut-is - feminine.

6. III declension of nouns. Grammatical signs of the masculine gender and the nature of the stems

Third declension nouns were extremely rare, for example: os, corpus, caput, foramen, dens. This methodological approach was absolutely justified. III declension is the most difficult to master and has a number of features that distinguish it from other declensions.

1. The third declension includes nouns of all three genders ending in gender. p. units h on -is (a sign of the III declension).

2. In them. p. units h. words not only of different genders, but even of the same gender have different endings characteristic of a particular gender; for example, in the masculine gender -os, -or, -o, -eg, -ex, -es.

3. For most nouns, the third declension stems in them. n. and in the genus. items do not match.

With such nouns, the practical basis is not determined by them. n., but by genus. n. by dropping the ending -is.

1. If in the dictionary form of any noun before the ending genus. p. units h. -is the end of the stem is attributed, which means that the stem of such a word is determined by the genus. P.:

Basis cortic-.

2. If in the dictionary form before the end of the genus. p. units h. -is has no postscript, which means that such a word can also have a basis determined by them. p. units h., discarding the ending to them. P.:

3. Nouns III declension depending on the coincidence or mismatch of the number of syllables in them. n. and genus. p. units hours are equally complex and non-equisyllabic, which is important for the exact definition of the genus in a number of cases.

Equosyllabic

Nom. pubes canalis rete

Gen. pubis canalis retis.

Non-equisyllabic

Nom. pes paries pars

Gen. pedis parietis parti.s

4. For monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form in gender. n. the word is written in full:

7. General requirements for the definition of grammatical gender in the III declension

The genus is determined by the endings of them. p. units h., characteristic of a certain genus within a given declension. Therefore, in order to determine the gender of any noun of the III declension, three points must be taken into account:

1) to know that the given word refers specifically to the III declension, and not to any other;

2) know what endings are in them. p. units hours are characteristic of one or another kind of III declension;

3) in some cases, also take into account the nature of the stem of the given word.

1) nouns ending in -a are feminine;

2) nouns ending in -urn, -en, -on, -u are neuter;

3) most nouns with -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are masculine;

4) words in -us ending in gender. n. on -r-is, - neuter.

Knowing that a noun belongs to a certain gender, you can correctly agree with it (in gender!) An adjective or form a word form for them. n. pl. h.

In most cases, the belonging of a word to one or another declension cannot serve as an indicator of gender, since in the same declension there are nouns of two genders (II and IV declension) or three genders (III declension). Nevertheless, it is useful to remember the following relation between the gender of a noun and its declension:

1) in I and V declensions - only feminine;

2) in II and IV declensions - masculine and neuter;

3) in the III declension - all three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Of the words in -us, most belong to the II declension, only a few - to the IV.

It is important to remember that in dictionary form, some of the most frequent nouns are in the IV declension: processus, us (m) - process; arcus, us (m) - arc; sinus, us (m) - sinus, sinus; meatus, us (m) - passage, move; plexus, us (m) - plexus; recessus, us (m) - depression, pocket.

Nulla regula sine exception.
There is no rule without exception.

Nouns in Latin are divided into five declensions depending on the final sounds of the base. In accordance with belonging to a particular declension, they take various case endings.

For those who accidentally came to the site: the Latin alphabet and reading rules are presented in the previous lesson.

First declension, -a, singularis

The first declension includes nouns and adjectives whose stem ends in - a; so it can also be called declension - a. Feminine nouns belong to it, which in nom. sing. have an ending a, in gen. sing. - ae, e.g.: schol a, schol ae - school, schools; vill a, vill ae - villa, villas. This also includes a small group of masculine nouns denoting a male profession or belonging to any nationality (the natural sign associated with the meaning of the word is decisive); e.g.: poēt a, poēt ae - poet; agricl a, agricl ae - farmer; Pers a, Pers ae - Persian.

In order to correctly determine which declension a noun belongs to, it is necessary to write it out and memorize it in two cases - nominative and genitive, for example: schola, scholae; toga, togae; Roma, Roma

We give an example of the declension of a noun with an adjective of the I declension in the singular. Pay attention to the typical Latin word order, where the adjective usually stands after noun:

Singularis
Nom.	puell ă pulchr ă beautiful girl	amic ă bon ă good friend
Gen.	puell ae pulchr ae	amic ae bon ae
Dat.	puell ae pulchr ae	amic ae bon ae
Asc.	puell am pulchr am	amic am bon am
Abl.	puell ā pulchr ā	amic ā bon ā
Voc.	puell ă pulchr ă	amic ă bon ă

NB (nota bene! - pay attention, remember well!)

1. Ablativus has an ending -A (A long), nominatīvus and vocatīvus - -ă (a short).

2. Before you start translating sentences, you should remember that the subject is always in nominative case:

Mother praises the maid. - mater ancillam laudat.
Girl(is) at school. - Puella in school est.

In these sentences, the Russian and Latin constructions completely coincide: the subject is in the nominative case.

Now compare the following phrases:

genitive

Girls not at school.
There are many slave girls.

Puella in school non est.
Multae ancillae sunt.

Here, Latin personal constructions are replaced when translated into Russian by impersonal ones, Latin nominativus is replaced by the genitive case; literal translation: “the girl is not at school”, “there are many slaves” - does not correspond to the norms of the Russian language.

3. If the predicate in the sentence is a nominal compound, that is, it consists of the auxiliary verb esse and the nominal part expressed by a noun or adjective, then the nominal part in Latin always stands in nominative case, i.e., consistent with the subject:

Puella bona est.
Syra ancilla est.

Girl - good.
Sira - maid.

When translating, the Latin nominativus is preserved if the auxiliary verb is in the present tense: “Slave unhappy"," Tullia (there is) girlfriend Julia." If the auxiliary verb is in the past or future tense, the nominal part of the predicate is translated creative case: "Tullia was (will be) girlfriend Julia."

4. The predicate in most cases is at the end of the sentence; starting the translation, you must first find the predicate, then the subject, and only after that add the rest of the sentence to them. For example: Terentia ancillam vocat. Predicate - vocat calling; we ask: who is calling? - and looking for nominativus - Terentia: Terentia is calling. Next question: who is calling? ancillam (acc.) slave. Translation of the whole sentence: "Terence calls the slave." Note the difference in word order:

Terentia Tulliam vocat.

Terentia is calling Tullia.

Puella Syram laudat.

Girl praises Siru.

Dictionary(for translate)

puella, ae girl
Romana, ae Roman
est is, is
matrōna, ae woman, lady
mater mother
filia, ae daughter
amīca, ae girlfriend
vocat calling
tunĭca, ae tunic
nova, ae new
da give
quo Where
propĕras hurry up, go
rogat asks

silva, ae forest
in(with acc.) in
cum(with abl.) with (with whom, with what)
cum amica with a friend
propero I'm going, I'm in a hurry
respondet answers
quo propĕras Where are you going?
 (in silvam propĕro I go to the forest
quo-cum propĕras who are you going with?
 (cum amica propero I'm going with a friend

Tullia, Iulia, Aemilia, Terentia- the names of the Romans; Syra- name of a slave

Translate:

Tullia puella Romana est. Terentia matrōna Romana est. Terentia mater Tulliae est. Iulia, Aemiliae filia, Tulliae amīca est. Terentia Syram vocat: "Syra! Tulliae tunĭcam novam da!" "Quo propĕras, Tullia?" - Syra rogat. "In silvam cum amīcā propĕro" - respondet Tullia.

First conjugation. Base -a

Infinitivus

indefinite form

- call for

Praesens indicativi activi Present indicative tense of the active voice
Face	Singularis	Pluralis
1.	voco- i call	voca- mus - we call
2.	voca- s - you call	voca- tis - you call
3.	voca- t - he, she calls	voca- nt - they call
Imperative- imperative mood
	voca! - call!	vocā-te! - call!

In the text, we met several verbs in various forms: propĕras- You're going; rogat- she asks; da- give. Their common feature is the vowel -A, which indicates that the verbs belong to one conjugation group, namely, to the I conjugation. The first conjugation includes verbs whose stem ends in a vowel -ā. We determine the belonging of the verb to one or another conjugation by the vowel sound that comes before the suffix of the indefinite form. In all four conjugations, this suffix is -re; if it is dropped, the stem of the verb remains, e.g.: vocā-re - call for; rogā-re- ask; properā-re- go, hurry.

The imperative mood has forms only in the 2nd person. In singularis, a pure stem is represented: voca! propera! roga!

Remember personal verb endings. These endings are used for all conjugations in almost all tenses:

	Singularis	Pluralis
1. 2. 3.	-O -s -t	-mus -tis -nt